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[Semantics & Pragmatics] Lexical Semantics - ์–ดํœ˜ ์˜๋ฏธ๋ก 

Lexical Semantics: Reference & Sense

Referent (์ง€์‹œ ๋Œ€์ƒ): ๋‹จ์–ด๋กœ ์ง€์ •๋œ ์‹ค์ œ

  • ์‚ฌ๋ฌผํ•œ ๋‹จ์–ด๊ฐ€ ์–ด๋–ค ๊ฐ€๋ฆฌํ‚ค๋Š” ๋Œ€์ƒ์ด ์žˆ๋Š” ๊ฒƒ.
๐Ÿ’ก Example
Jack, the happy swimmer, my friend, and that guy can all have the same referent in the sentence Jack swims.
-> Jack = the happy swimmer = my friend = that guy
  • ๊ฐ„๋‹จํ•ด ๋ณด์ด์ง€๋งŒ, ๋˜‘๊ฐ™์€ ์˜๋ฏธ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ๋Š”๊ฑธ ์ง€์นญํ•˜๋Š” ๊ฑด ์‰ฝ์ง€๊ฐ€ ์•Š๋‹ค.
    • ์˜๋ฏธ๋ฅผ ํŒŒ์•…ํ•ด์•ผ ์ฐพ์„ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ๋‹ค. - ์ง€์‹œ ๋Œ€์ƒ์ด ๊ฐ™์•„๋„ ์˜๋ฏธ๊ฐ€ ๋‹ค๋ฅด๋ฉด ๊ฐ™๋‹ค๊ณ  ํ•  ์ˆ˜ ์—†๋‹ค.
๐Ÿ’ก Example
Superman, born Kal-El and legally named Clark Kent, is the last son of Krypton, sent as the dying planet's last hope to Earth, where he grew to become its kind, noble protector.

Louis Lane is in love with Superman.
Louis Lane is in love with Clark Kent??

Sense (์˜๋ฏธ): ์ฐธ์กฐ์™€๋Š” ๋ณ„๊ฐœ๋กœ enduring์ธ ์˜๋ฏธ์˜ ์š”์†Œ

  • ์˜๋ฏธ O โ†’ ์ง€์‹œ์ฒด X / ์˜๋ฏธ X โ†’ ์ง€์‹œ์ฒด O ์ธ ๊ฒฝ์šฐ๋„ ์žˆ๋‹ค.
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • ์œ ๋‹ˆ์ฝ˜ & ํ˜ธ๋น— ์ด๋ผ๋Š” ๋‹จ์–ด๋Š” ์˜๋ฏธ๋Š” ์žˆ์ง€๋งŒ ์–ธ๊ธ‰์€ ์—†๋‹ค.
  • Proper names tend to have reference but no sense.
    • ex. ํ™๊ธธ๋™
  • The same reference but different senses
    • Barack Obama
    • The Former President (๋ฏธํ•ฉ์ค‘๊ตญ์˜ ์ „์ˆ˜์žฅ)
    • Michelle Obamaโ€™s husband

Lexical Relations: Synonyms (๋™์˜์–ด)

Synonyms (๋™์˜์–ด): ์ผ๋ถ€ ๋˜๋Š” ๋ชจ๋“  ๋ฌธ๋งฅ์—์„œ ๊ฐ™์€ ์˜๋ฏธ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง„ ๋‹จ์–ด๋‚˜ ํ‘œํ˜„.
  • ๊ฑฐ์ด ๋Œ€๋ถ€๋ถ„์— ์ƒํ™ฉ์—์„œ ๋™์ผํ•œ ์˜๋ฏธ๋กœ ์“ฐ์ด๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์ด ๋™์˜์–ด ๋ผ๊ณ  ํ•œ๋‹ค.
    • ์™„์ „ํ•œ ๋™์˜์–ด๋Š” ์ด ์„ธ์ƒ์— ์—†๋‹ค!
    • ๋น„์Šทํ•ด ๋ณด์ด๋Š” ๋‘ ๋‹จ์–ด๊ฐ€ ๋˜‘๊ฐ™์€ ๊ธฐ๋Šฅ์„ ํ•˜์ง€๋Š” ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค.
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • apathetic = indifferent
  • sofa = couch
  • ์–ด๋–ค ์‚ฌ๋žŒ๋“ค์€ ์ •ํ™•ํžˆ ๊ฐ™์€ ์˜๋ฏธ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง„ ๋‘ ๋‹จ์–ด๋Š” ์—†๋‹ค๊ณ  ์ฃผ์žฅํ•œ๋‹ค.
    • ๋™๋ฌด vs. ์นœ๊ตฌ
    • ๋‚˜์ด vs. ์—ฐ๋ น
    • ๊ฒฝ์ฐฐ vs. ์ˆœ๊ฒฝ

Lexical Relations: Antonyms (๋ฐ˜์˜์–ด)

Antonyms (๋ฐ˜์˜์–ด): ๊ฒน์น˜๋Š” ๊ฑฐ ์—†์ด 2๊ฐœ๋กœ ๋”ฑ ๋‚˜๋‰˜ ์ง€๋Š” ๋‹จ์–ด, ๋œป์ด ์ •๋ฐ˜๋Œ€์ธ ๋‹จ์–ด
  • Complementary[Simple] antonyms/Binary pairs
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • alive/dead, present/absent, awake/asleep
  • alive = not dead, dead = not alive
  • ๊ฑฐ์˜ ์ฃฝ๋‹ค, ์•ฝ๊ฐ„ ์ฃฝ๋‹ค, ๊ฑฐ์˜ ์ผ์–ด๋‚ฌ๋‹ค, ์•ฝ๊ฐ„ ์ž๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค

 

  • Gradable pairs[antonyms]: ๋น„๊ต ๋Œ€์ƒ์ด ์žˆ๋‹ค.
๐Ÿ’ก big/small, hot/cold, fast/slow, happy/sad

 

  • ๋“ฑ๊ธ‰ํ™” ๊ฐ€๋Šฅํ•œ ๋ฐ˜์˜์–ด์˜ ์ผ๋ถ€ ์Œ์€, ํ‘œ์‹œ & ํ‘œ์‹œ ๋˜์ง€ ์•Š์€ ์šฉ์–ด ํฌํ•จํ•˜๋ฉฐ, ํ‘œ์‹œ ๋˜์ง€ ์•Š์€ ์šฉ์–ด๋Š” ์ •๋„ ๋ฌธ์ œ์—์„œ ์‚ฌ์šฉ๋œ๋‹ค.
๐Ÿ’ก Example
How high is the mountain? not How low is the mountain?
How old are you? not How young are you?
  • Relational antonyms: ์˜๋ฏธ์˜ ๋Œ€์นญ์„ฑ์„ ๋‚˜ํƒ€๋‚ธ๋‹ค.
๐Ÿ’ก Example: give/receive, buy/sell, employer/employee

  • Antonyms(๋ฐ˜์˜์–ด)๋Š” ํ•˜๋‚˜์˜ ์˜๋ฏธ์  ํŠน์ง•์„ ์ œ์™ธํ•œ ๋ชจ๋“  ํŠน์ง•์„ ๊ณต์œ 
๐Ÿ’ก ๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋ฉด ์ด ๋‹จ์–ด๋“ค์€ ๋ฐ˜์˜์–ด ์ธ๊ฐ€์š”? 1. Buy vs. sell 2. Big vs. red

Semantic Features (์˜๋ฏธ๋ก ์  ํŠน์ง•)

  • ๋‹จ์–ด& ๋ฌธ์žฅ์˜ ์˜๋ฏธ์˜ ์ผ๋ถ€์ธ ๊ฐœ๋…์  ์š”์†Œ
  • Semantic Feature (์˜๋ฏธ๋ก ์  ํŠน์ง•)์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ Evidence


Lexical Relations (์–ดํœ˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„)

Homonyms (๋™์ฒ ๋™์Œ์ด์˜์–ด)

  • ์ฒ ์ž๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ™๊ณ  ๋ฐœ์Œ์ด ๊ฐ™์€ ๋‹จ์–ด
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • bank: ์€ํ–‰, ๋‘‘
  • ๋ง, ๋ฐฐ, ์‚ฌ๊ณผ, ์€ํ–‰, ํ™”์žฅ

 

Homographs (๋™์ฒ ์ด์˜์–ด)

  • ์ฒ ์ž๊ฐ€ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋‹จ์–ด
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • bow: ์ธ์‚ฌํ•˜๋‹ค, ํ™œ
  • dove: ๋น„๋‘˜๊ธฐ, dive์˜ ๊ณผ๊ฑฐํ˜•

 

Homophones (๋™์Œ์ด์˜์–ด)

  • ์˜๋ฏธ๋Š” ๋‹ค๋ฅด์ง€๋งŒ ๋ฐœ์Œ์€ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋‹จ์–ด
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • bear and bare: ๊ณฐ, ๋ฒŒ๊ฑฐ๋ฒ—์€
  • flower and flour: ๊ฝƒ, ๋ฐ€๊ฐ€๋ฃจ

 

Polysemy (๋‹ค์˜์–ด)

  • Polysemous(๋‹ค์˜์–ด) ๋Š” ๊ฐœ๋…์  or ์—ญ์‚ฌ์ ์œผ๋กœ ๊ด€๋ จ๋œ ์—ฌ๋Ÿฌ ์˜๋ฏธ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง„ ๋‹จ์–ด
  • ์˜๋ฏธ์  ์œผ๋กœ๋Š” ๊ด€๋ จ์ด ์žˆ์ง€๋งŒ ์„œ๋กœ ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์–ธ์–ด
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • diamond: the geometric shape; a baseball field
  • ๊ฐ€์Šด: ๊ฐ€์Šด์„ ๋‚ด๋ฐ€๋‹ค; ๊ฐ€์Šด์„ ํƒœ์šฐ๋‹ค
  • ์•„์นจ: ์•„์นจ์ด ๋ฐ์•„์˜จ๋‹ค; ์•„์นจ ๋จน๋Š”๋‹ค

Hyponym and hypernym (์ƒ์œ„์–ด & ํ•˜์œ„์–ด)

Hyponym and hypernym (์ƒ์œ„์–ด & ํ•˜์œ„์–ด)๋Š” ์ผ๋ฐ˜์ ์ธ ์šฉ์–ด์™€ ํ•ด๋‹น ์šฉ์–ด์˜ ํŠน์ • ์ธ์Šคํ„ด์Šค ์‚ฌ์ด์˜ ๊ด€๊ณ„๋ฅผ ํฌํ•จํ•œ๋‹ค.
rose, iris, daisy, and poppy are all a kind of flower, so rose, iris, daisy, and poppy -> ๊ฝƒ์ด๋ผ๋Š” ๋ชจ๋“  ๋‹จ์–ด์˜
ํ•˜์œ„์–ด

  • WordNet
https://wordnet.princeton.edu/

 

A large lexical database of English words. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are grouped into sets of cognitive synonyms called โ€˜synsetsโ€™, each expressing a distinct concept. Synsets are interlinked using conceptual-semantic and lexical relations such as hyponymy

๐Ÿ’ก Example


Argument Structure

Argument Structure (๋…ผํ•ญ๊ตฌ์กฐ)

  • ์˜๋ฏธ โ†’ ๋…ผํ•ญ๊ตฌ์กฐ = Subcategorization์™€ ๊ฐ™๋‹ค.
  • ์—ฌ๊ธฐ์„œ๋„ ๋Œ€์žฅ์€ ๋™์‚ฌ (Verb)
  • Syntax์˜ Constraints(์ œ์•ฝ์กฐ๊ฑด) ๋ฐ Subcategorization(ํ•˜์œ„ ๋ฒ”์ฃผํ™”)์™€ ์œ ์‚ฌํ•˜๋‹ค.
  • ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์˜ ๋™์‚ฌ๋Š” ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ˆ˜์˜ NP๋ฅผ argument๋กœ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•œ๋‹ค.
  • Argument๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง€๋ฉด ์•ˆ๋œ๋‹ค.
โ†’ ํ•œ๊ตญ์–ด, ์˜์–ด๋ƒ์— ๋”ฐ๋ผ ๋ช‡๊ฐœ์˜ ๋…ผํ•ญ ๊ตฌ์กฐ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง€๋Š”๊ฒŒ ๋‹ฌ๋ผ์ง

๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ข…๋ฅ˜์˜ ๋™์‚ฌ๋Š” ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ˆ˜์˜ NP๋ฅผ ์ธ์ˆ˜๋กœ ์‚ฌ์šฉํ•œ๋‹ค.

  • sleep๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋ถ€์ •์‚ฌ๋Š” ๋‹ค๋ฅธ ์ฃผ์žฅ์„ ํ•˜์ง€ ์•Š๋Š”๋‹ค.
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • ์•„๊ธฐ๊ฐ€ ์ž”๋‹ค.
  • She sings. ๊ทธ๋…€๋Š” ๋…ธ๋ž˜๋ฅผ ๋ถ€๋ฅธ๋‹ค.

 

  • find์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ํƒ€๋™์‚ฌ๋Š” ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ์ธ์ˆ˜(์ง์ ‘ ๋ชฉ์ ์–ด)๋ฅผ ์ทจํ•œ๋‹ค
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • ๊ทธ๋Š” ๋ฌผ์„ ๋งˆ์‹ ๋‹ค.
  • ๊ทธ๋…€๋Š” ์ˆ˜ํ•™์„ ๊ฐ€๋ฅด์นœ๋‹ค.

 

  • give์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ์ด์ค‘๋™์‚ฌ๋Š” ๋‘ ๊ฐœ์˜ ์ถ”๊ฐ€ ์ธ์ˆ˜(์ง์ ‘ ๋ชฉ์ ์–ด์™€ ๊ฐ„์ ‘ ๋ชฉ์ ์–ด)๋ฅผ ์ทจํ•œ๋‹ค
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • ๊ฝƒ์— ๋ฌผ์„ ์ค€๋‹ค.

 

  • Verb(๋™์‚ฌ) ๋˜ํ•œ ๋ชจ๋“  ์ฃผ์žฅ์˜ semantic properties (์˜๋ฏธ๋ก ์  ํŠน์„ฑ)์„ ๊ฒฐ์ •ํ•œ๋‹ค
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • find์™€ sleep๊ณผ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋™์‚ฌ๋Š” ์ธ๊ฐ„ ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ฃผ์–ด๋ฅผ ํ•„์š”๋กœ ํ•œ๋‹ค.
  • drink์™€ ๊ฐ™์€ ๋™์‚ฌ๋Š” ์•ก์ฒด ์— ๋Œ€ํ•œ ์ง์ ‘ ๋ชฉ์ ์–ด๋ฅผ ํ•„์š”๋กœ ํ•œ๋‹ค.
  • ์ฒ ์ˆ˜: human (subject)
  • ์ฝœ๋ผ: liquid
  • ๊ฝƒ: plant
  • ๋ฌผ: liquid
  • ํ™”๋ณ‘: inanimate object

 

  • ์ œ์•ฝ์กฐ๊ฑด ๋ฐ ํ•˜์œ„ ๋ฒ”์ฃผํ™” (constraints and subcategorization)
    • Collocational or Bag-of-words
๐Ÿ’ก Example
  • ์ฝœ๋ผ โ€“ ๋งˆ์‹œ๋‹ค
  • ๋ฌผ โ€“ ๋งˆ์‹œ๋‹ค
  • ๊ฝƒ โ€“ ๋ฌผ
  • ํ™”๋ณ‘ โ€“ ๋งˆ์‹œ๋‹ค ???
  • ์ˆ˜์€ โ€“ ๋งˆ์‹œ๋‹ค ????
  • ๊ฝƒ โ€“ ๋งˆ์‹œ๋‹ค ???
๊ทธ๋Ÿฌ๋ฉด ์šฐ๋ฆฌ๋Š” ์ด๊ฒƒ๋“ค์ด ๊ฐ™์€ ์˜๋ฏธ๋ฅผ ๊ฐ€์ง€๊ณ  ์žˆ๋‹ค๋Š” ๊ฒƒ์„ ์•Œ์•„๋‚ผ ์ˆ˜ ์žˆ์„๊นŒ?
  • XYZ corporation bought the stock.
  • They sold the stock to XYZ corporation.
  • The stock was bought by XYZ corporation.
  • The purchase of the stock by XYZ corporationโ€ฆ
  • The stock purchase by XYZ corporationโ€ฆ